Instructional Design

Introduction
Instructional design, or instructional systems design (ISD), is a broad multi-disciplinary field. Instructional designers (ISDers) develop courses and activities for classroom learning as well as e-learning (also known as online learning).[1] Many ISDers work in K-12 schools or higher education. Others are employed by training departments in businesses, industries, government or nonprofits.[2] There is increasing crossover between instructional design and technical communication (TC).[1,3]

Instructional Design and Technical Communication
Both ISDers and TCers create learning materials.[1,3] They must both understand the user's needs, identify gaps in knowledge, and consult with SMEs to develop accurate content.[1] ISDers often have advanced education-related degrees.[4] However, they often need technical communication skills to be competitive in industry and business careers.[5] Similarly, TCers are often called upon to create interactive and multimodal learning elements.[1]

While instructional design is listed as a "lower-ranked competency" in a 2005 review of core competencies for technical communicators,[6] there is reason to believe that this skill is rising in importance to TCers. In fact, some experts are predicting an eventual "convergence" between the two fields.[1,3]

Formal vs. Informal Learning
ISDers have historically focused on formal learning: structured coursework that the learner completes from beginning to end. TCers primarily create reference material for informal learning, an unplanned activity a user takes part in when the need arises (such as learning how to complete a new task).[1]

Due to recent research, informal learning is often viewed as more efficient than formal training, as well as more important to employee development. A 2014 employment and education study shows that the average employee spends 505 hours a year learning. Informal learning comprised 96 percent of those hours. Additionally, the study found that the learning output of 8 hours of informal learning was equal to 8 hours of formal training.[7] Consequently, ISDers are beginning to build more knowledge bases and create other strategies to support self-directed learning.[1]

Collaboration and Crossover
In some situations, TCers may work alongside ISDers in complementary roles.[3] In other environments, particularly in startups where funding may be tight, a TCer may also play an instructional design role. For example, a TCer hired in a SaaS startup may be expected to develop interactive how-to materials that walk potential users through the software's best features. These materials can be used as part of a marketing strategy.[10]

STC Support for Instructional Design Interests
The Society for Technical Communication (STC) offers a course in instructional design for TCers. According to the website, this course is recommended for TCers who wish to move into leadership roles.[8] Additionally, there is an "Instructional Design and Learning Special Interest Group" that STC members can join. This group offers a virtual community and events such as webinars.[9]

Types of Instructional Design Work
Like technical communication, instructional design includes so many roles and tasks that it is difficult to define. Job duties in this field may include:


 * conducting research to determine gaps in learners' performance and/or knowledge [1]
 * determining expected return on investment (ROI) of training interventions [1]
 * interviewing SMEs to develop content [1]
 * creating and using learning management systems [12]
 * designing e-learning courses and materials [12]
 * updating or creating new activities for classroom-based courses [12]
 * recording and editing podcasts and videos [12]
 * creating written and visual content [12]
 * devising assessments to determine whether performance has improved [1]
 * training educators to use materials and technology [12]
 * creating entire courses and/or program curricula[13]

Increasing Importance of Technical Skill
In the past, ISDers involved with e-learning created storyboards for courses, activities and assessments, which were then turned over to programmers and Web developers to build. Today, many ISDers both design and build the course and its elements. This requires additional technical skills as well as a broader range of multimedia content authoring abilities.[11]

Learning Objects and Content Re-use
Similar to DITA and other strategies in technical communication, content re-use helps ISDers leverage content that has already been created across multiple platforms and for different courses. Learning objects are digital resources (ranging from images, videos or short texts to entire websites or apps) that can be used repeatedly in different educational contexts.[14,15] Learning objects are:[15]


 * Reusable
 * Work with any learning management system or tool
 * Are stored in a database and labeled for search
 * Have the ability to be tracked and updated over time

The IEEE Learning Technology Standards Committee (LTSC) is an international body that oversees several open standards to promote compatibility across educational technology products. These include a Learning Object Metadata standard to ensure learning objects are categorized and labeled for search,[14,16] as well as a Learning Technology-XML schema.[16]

Instructional Design Theories and Models
There are a vast array of theories and models in use in the field today.[17] Below are a few models of practical use to TCers.



ADDIE and Other Systematic Approaches
ADDIE is an acronym for a popular systematic approach to ISD. Designers present content to stakeholders during each step of the process and revise it to ensure that it meets with their approval.[2] The steps are as follows:


 * 1) Analyze: Determine why the training is needed.[18] This may include gathering data to identify performance gaps,[2] determine needs of the organization, and create profiles of target learners.[18]
 * 2) Design: Determine the desired learning outcomes, instructional strategies and assessments for the situation[2,18]
 * 3) Develop: Learning activities and resources are created and assembled to meet course objectives[2,18]
 * 4) Implement: The course is released, and the students are engaged.[2] During this period, ISDers and other stakeholders monitor the course for effectiveness and impact on learners[18]
 * 5) Evaluate: This step occurs throughout the process, both before and after implementation.[2] The course is revised based on the evaluation, and then the ADDIE process begins again.[18]

One modification of the ADDIE model is rapid prototyping, where an iterative process extends the Design phase. Quickly assembled prototype course modules are developed and placed in front of students to test as soon as possible. They are then evaluated for efficacy followed by another iteration of the prototype, testing, evaluation, and so on until the module is complete.[17] The Dick and Carey model is similar to ADDIE, but with more detailed steps.[19] It is often used to train novice ISDers.[20]





Bloom's Taxonomy
Published in 1956, the “Taxonomy of Educational Objectives” (more commonly called Bloom’s Taxonomy) is widely used in education and instructional design. Initially, it was intended to help classify learning objectives and ensure that tests covered more complex outcomes than simply recalling memorized knowledge.[21]

In 2001, a group of cognitive psychologists updated the taxonomy with active verbs and gerunds (see image).[22] Each “level” of the taxonomy builds on the last to help a learner gain mastery of a topic.[21]

ISDers create learning objectives and lessons at all levels of Bloom’s taxonomy.[21] Prior to designing coursework, they are likely to assess which level their users must reach to successfully complete tasks. TCers often write material geared toward the third level (or “Apply”).[23]

Minimalist Instruction Theory
Minimalist theory was devised in 1987 by J.M. Carroll as an "action-oriented approach"[24] to instructional design for adult learners. It is geared towards computer-related training materials, making it of particular interest to TCers. Minimalist theory advocates for: [24,25]


 * materials that engage learners with meaningful, realistic projects as quickly as possible
 * a broad variety of self-contained learning activities to choose from, allowing learners to improvise and decide how and what to learn
 * content that helps learners recognize errors and recover from them
 * training that is closely linked to the system that the learner is using

The theory emphasizes that adults who are learning technology should be able to integrate their own prior knowledge and goals into a self-directed learning experience. Minimalist theory has been used extensively in development of computer-related documentation,[24,25] but Carroll and others believe it is the best approach to all instruction.[24]

Image Credits
26. Fav203 (2012) "ADDIE Model of Design.jpg". Wikimedia Commons. Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license. Retrieved November 19, 2018.

27. Kenbethea (2010) "Dick Carey.png". Wikimedia Commons. Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license. Retrieved November 19, 2018.

28. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching (2016). "Bloom's Taxonomy" Licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license. Retrieved November 19, 2018.

Last updated by Jordana Bowen on 11/28/2018