Ethics

Introduction
Ethics has become an increasingly prominent topic within the field of technical communication. Though technical writers aim to be objective in their transmission of information, all communication is naturally affected by human values, biases, and assumptions.[3] Ethical issues are inherent in technical communication because what we write can positively or negatively influence others. It is important for professionals in the field to understand the ethical and rhetorical implications of their writing, editing, and design choices.[5]

Technical communicators face ethical dilemmas regularly in the workplace. There are endless theories on what constitutes ethical behavior, but technical writers and communicators must decide individually on the most ethical course of action. They must use codes of professional conduct as well as their own personal judgment and ethical standards to navigate any challenges.

Ethics and Responsibility
Ethical issues can arise when technical communicators are torn between their obligations to various stakeholders, including their employers, their clients, and their readers. As employees, technical communicators are responsible for helping their employer achieve practical business objectives such as improving a product, increasing efficiency, and boosting sales. Occasionally, the goals of the employer will conflict with a technical communicator's idea of ethical behavior.

According to Professor Mike Markel of Boise State University, technical communicators face the pressure of capitalistic motivations and emphasis on reducing costs, using the least expensive materials and processes, getting products into the marketplace quickly, and communicating only positive information to the public. These emphases contribute to the pressure to act unethically.[7]

Professor Cezar Ornatowski of San Diego State University also finds it difficult to reconcile usefulness to employers with a sense of personal responsibility to act ethically. He writes, "Effectiveness and efficiency, understood in terms of usefulness to employers, as the basic premises for communicative action appear to leave the communicator no provision, at least in theory, for action that does not 'efficiently' further the goals of the institution or interests she serves."[9]

Common Ethical Issues in Technical Communication
The following are some of the most common ethical dilemmas faced by technical communicators in the workplace.

Language Manipulation
Technical communicators often face ethical dilemmas as they try to communicate using language that is both honest and effective. Language can be manipulated to express biased or less-than-honest communications, as noted by HL Shimberg.[12] It can be tempting for technical writers to misrepresent facts or twist the truth to better suit their objectives, especially when faced with outside pressure or deadlines. However, ethical communication involves truthfully and accurately representing information to readers. "Technical communicators want their documents to be attractive and persuasive to their readers, but they also need to remain true to their informative purposes."[1]

Presentation of Misleading Information
Presenting misleading information is more complicated than dishonesty, but is also unethical. Markel writes, "A misleading statement or visual, while perhaps not actually being a lie, enables or even encourages the reader to believe false information."[7] Some examples include the use of abstractions, complex technical and legal jargon, and euphemisms that can mislead readers by circumventing the truth and giving them a false impression. Technical communicators should also not present readers with partial or self-serving information.

Deliberate attempts to hide unfavorable information are also deceptive. Vital information should not be hidden in dense paragraphs or printed in small type. One of the most recognizable examples of unethical technical writing is in the case of the Challenger disaster. Crucial information about the problems with the O Ring seals on the space shuttle were buried in a middle paragraph of the memo written by NASA engineers.[14] Technical communicators must highlight information that is important for their readers to know, like hidden costs or potential safety hazards. They should use legible type sizes, bulleted or numbered lists, and footnotes to emphasize key facts.

Plagiarism
Plagiarism is not only dishonest and unethical but can also have serious professional and legal consequences. Technical writers must make sure they cite their sources of information correctly and give credit to the original authors. "To prevent charges of plagiarism, if there is any question about whether to cite a source, it should be cited."[8] They must also respect intellectual property and copyright.

Presenting Visual Information Ethically
Visuals and graphics can easily be used to mislead. Technology has made it easier than ever to distort and manipulate visual information. As Allen writes, ethical problems can arise in the emphasis, selection, framing, grouping, or choice of type of visual element.[1] The left bar graph below is intentionally misleading. The graph appears to show significant differences in the data. However, only a narrow range of numbers are shown on the vertical axis (9100-9800). This is referred to as a truncated bar graph. When the scale of the graph is corrected, the differences in the data are much less visible, as seen in the right graph.

It is essential for technical communicators to understand how to use visuals effectively and ethically in their work. They must provide proper context and perspective in each graphic they use.

 Truncated Bar Graph                         Non-Truncated Bar Graph 

Suppression of Relevant Information In many situations in technical communication, "the truth is stretched because information is withheld".[10] Dishonesty can occur in technical communication when valuable information is withheld. It is tempting to de-emphasize or suppress unfavorable information. For example, a company might omit printing a caution label because it reveals a weakness in their product. However, obscuring or avoiding presenting all the facts is unethical.

Models of Ethical Behavior
Many scholars and professionals in the field have designed models of ethical behavior that might help technical communicators make informed decisions about ethical issues in the workplace.

Wicclar and Farkas
Mark Wicclair and David Farkas outline three types of ethical principles that provide technical communicators with a means of identifying and solving ethical problems in their work:[2]

1. Goal-Based principles
The rightness or wrongness of an action depends on the goodness or badness of its consequences.

2. Duty-Based principles
Some actions are inherently wrong just for what they are, and not because of their bad consequences.

3. Rights-based principles
Wicclar and Farkas believe that these ethical principles offer technical communicators a means to reason about ethical problems in a systematic manner.

Allen and Voss
L. Allen and D. Voss recommend a six-step value analysis process that ranks ethical values in order to systematically resolve conflicts.

1. Define the issue and identify the stakeholders.

2. Determine the stakeholders' interests.

3. Identify the relevant values that bear on each of these interests.

4. Determine the values that are in conflict.

'''5. Apply a model to rank values according to importance.  6. Resolve the conflict in favor of the higher (more important value). '''

== References == [1] Allen, N. (1996). Ethics and visual rhetorics: Seeing's not believing anymore. Technical communication quarterly, 5(1), 87-105.

[2] L. Allen and D. Voss, "Ethics for editors: an analytical decision-making process," in IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 58-65, March 1998,

[3] Dombrowski, P. M. (2000). Ethics and technical communication: The past quarter century. Journal of Technical Writing and Communication, 30(1), 3-29.

[4] Dragga, S. (1996). " Is this ethical?": a survey of opinion on principles and practices of document design. Technical communication, 43(3), 255-265.

[5] Dragga, S. (1997). A question of ethics: Lessons from technical communicators on the job. Technical Communication Quarterly, 6(2), 161-178.

[6] Luce, A. V. (2014). ‘It Wasn’t Intended to Be an Instruction Manual’: Revisiting Ethics of ‘Objective’Technical Communication in Gaming Manuals. Computer games and technical communication: Critical methods and applications at the intersection, 2014, 87-106.

[7] Markel, M. (1997). Ethics and technical communication: A case for foundational approaches. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 40(4), 284-298.

[8] Markel, M. (1991). A Basic Unit on Ethics for Technical Communicators. Journal of Technical Writing and Communication, 21(4), 327–350.

[9] Ornatowski, C. M. (1992). Between efficiency and politics: rhetoric and ethics in technical writing. Technical Communication Quarterly, 1(1), 91-103.

[10] Perica, L. (1972). Honesty in Technical Communication. Technical Communication, 19(1), 2-6.

[11] Rubens, P. M. (1981). Reinventing the Wheel?: Ethics for Technical Communicators. Journal of Technical Writing and Communication, 11(4), 329–339.

[12] Shimberg, H. L. (1980). Technical communicators and moral ethics. Technical communication, 27(3), 10-12.

[13] Wicclair, M., & Farkas, D. (1984). Ethical Reasoning in Technical Communication: A Practical Framework. Technical Communication, 31(2), 15-19.

[14] Beilfuss, M. (2020). “Chapter 4: Ethics.” Technical and Professional Writing Genre, OSU Libraries, open.library.okstate.edu/technicalandprofessionalwriting/chapter/chapter-4/.Last Updated by Aisha Ali on November 3rd, 2020