History of Writing Technologies

Introduction
This is a brief account of technologies used in writing, copying and storing information throughout our history. These technologies are ordered into three categories: manual, mechanical, and electronic. This is, to a certain degree, a chronological record. Manual technologies were our earliest forms of written communications. Mechanical technologies were what we relied on as our needs evolved before the advent of electricity. We still rely on many mechanical technologies today. Electronic technologies are what most of us are accustomed to presently. They are constantly developing as our needs change. There are many exclusions in this brief history, as the subject is very broad. Any one of the technologies listed here could be expanded upon greatly.

Manual Technologies
Over 20,000 years ago we see the first evidence of written communication in the form of cave paintings. Animal blood and plant matter were the medium and human hands and fingers the tools. Over 10,000 years later the peoples of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China realized the need for a more permanent way of keeping records and histories. Etching and stamping became the written communication of choice. It is around this time that cuneiform was first introduced, a way of pressing symbols into clay. Each one of the cuneiform marks represented a syllable, and when put together these syllables formed words.[5] Our first remaining evidence of this type of writing is the original pressing of Gilgamesh preserved in clay over 4,000 years ago. (Fig. 1)

Writing Surfaces
With the advent of writing came the need for an easier way to create documents. The Egyptians invented the lightweight and portable papyrus. Papyrus was primarily stamped upon, but reeds dipped in ink were also used. Scrolls of papyrus evolved into accordion-style folded pieces that were easier to open and close. Scrolls needed to be unrolled and re-rolled and in doing so the papyrus would often become brittle and crumble.[7] (Fig. 2) Papyrus led the way to parchment and vellum, created by the Greeks and Romans. The fragility of papyrus resulted in these two new forms being the most popular medium used in ancient times until the medieval era.[2] Parchment made the modern book possible as it was printable on both sides and easily bound.

Paper was invented in ancient China around 105 CE, but wasn’t widely used in Europe until 1050. Because paper was thin, portable, and durable, it became popular among Chinese elites who wanted its manufacturing process kept secret. The technology remained in China until the seventh century when it spread to Korea and Japan. A century later it caught on with Arab traders who introduced it to Europe.

Writing Tools
The feather pen was first put into use around 500 CE and became the stylus of choice for over 1,000 years. Although there is evidence of metallic, reed-like pens being used in Pompeii, they were not available in Europe until the eighteenth century. The first fountain pen was invented by Louis Edison Waterman in 1883.

Writing Tools
The printing press was invented by Gutenberg in 1440. He used parchment and paper, made from cotton that was dissolved and pressed into sheets.[6]. It was paper and the printing press that spread knowledge and literacy to the general public.[8] This spread was, at first, supported by the Catholic church. However, knowledge gave people power and this led to the Protestant Reformation.

In 1888 John J. Loud patented the first ball point pen. In filing his patent he wrote, "My invention consists of an improved reservoir or fountain pen, especially useful, among other purposes, for marking on rough surfaces-such as wood, coarse wrapping-paper, and other articles where an ordinary pen could not be used."[7] Loud's pen did not work well on paper, however, and was not successful commercially. Hungarian journalist Josef Bíró, experimenting with heavier printer's ink, small ball bearings, and the fountain pen concept, patented the first ballpoint pen. Bíró's design was modified slightly by the Reynolds company in 1945, but only enough to skirt the patent. The first Reynolds pen debuted in New York at the 32nd Street store on the morning of October 29, 1945. According to Reynold's official history, "The day the pen went on sale an estimated 5,000 shoppers stormed the shop and approximately 50 NYPD officers had to be dispatched for crowd control."[9] Many pens were sold, but since they were refillable the demand slowly dwindled. In 1950 French industrialist, Michel Bich, did not re-invent the pen, but instead produced a mass market item, the disposable ink pen. "No one understood better than Marcel Bich that potent 20th-century alchemy of high volume/low cost," ran his obituary in the UK's Independant newspaper when he died in 1994. "To this formula he added the magic catalyst of disposability. He invented nothing, but understood the mass market almost perfectly."[3] His Bic Cristal is the same pen we use today. (Fig. 3)

In 1868 Sholes and Glidden patented and produced the first QWERTY typewriter. The choice in organization of keys was meant to keep the typewriter from jamming. They placed the most frequently used keys away from the users typically strongest fingers, thus slowing typing speeds. First created for court reporters, the Sholes typewriter did not allow the user to see what he or she was typing. The advent of Underwood’s model overcame this issue and was known as a “visible” typewriter.[10]

Copy
With the advent of the paper and pen the need for copy and storage arose leading to the introduction of the letterpress. First patented by James Watt in 1780, the letterpress was used in conjunction with a press book. The press book, made up of tissue like paper, had an original, hand written, copy placed in-between the pages and was then screwed down manually with a hand crank wheel, much the same way wine is pressed. Using a press copier was much more efficient than hand printing copies.[10] However, as document production by typewriter became more prolific, the needs for copy changed.

Storage
Storage systems in the nineteenth century played an important role in the development of internal written communication. During this time we see use of the gummed letter invoice file, box file and cabinet flat file, nine of which are in use today. These options made it difficult for the user to locate any correspondence. The Dewey Decimal System was introduced in 1876, and from this design evolved a new form a storage, the vertical file. In 1892, the Library Bureau created folders that held paper stored on edge (much like the Dewey system) and had upright file cases designed for them. They presented that system at the Chicago World's Fair of 1893, where it won a gold metal.[10]

Word Processing
Samuel B. Morse sent his first message, "What hath God Wrought" along his telegraph line from Baltimore to Washington, DC on May 24th 1844. (Fig. 4) In less than 200 years there have been leaps and bounds in the evolution of electronic word processing. Thomas Edison patented the first electric typewriter at the end of the nineteenth century and scientists at the University of Pennsylvania built the first electronic computer for the military in 1946. It weighed 30 tons and required a constant stream of cold air to keep form overheating. Hard disk drives were commonly seen in business for data processing and payroll by the 1970s, and by the 1980s the primary use for the computer became word processing.

Copy
Alexander Bain, one of Morse's competitors, patented the first facsimile machine in in 1843 using electrically generated impulses on treated paper. However, as early as 1700, a process invented by Joseph-Marie Jacquard called Xerography, used lightbulbs, India ink and wax paper to generate images. Jacquard called this process "dry writing". Jacquard sold his idea to the Xerox company and the first office friendly photo copier was sold in 1959.

Storage
Since the advent of the internet in 1983, email and paperless correspondence have become the main way in which we communicate.[1] The advent of new technologies, however, doesn't eradicate the need for older ones. We still use pen and paper much the same way and at the same rate as we have for centuries. And while filing cabinets are still found in the office or home, much of our information is now stored electronically in "the cloud", no longer contributing to clutter. It is interesting to note that digital technology has not significantly reduced our paper usage, it has only shifted its role.