Intercultural Technical Communication

Purpose
The need for intercultural communication is growing as the world becomes more connected through globalization. Multinational corporations are shifting towards a more culturally sensitive business model to remain competitive. As such, modern technical communicators must take steps to understand and implement communication styles from other cultures in order to connect with their international audiences.

Theory
Technical communicators who work within a single cultural context are often taught that plain language techniques are the best way to convey information, regardless of culture. However, this is not true across all cultures. The use of language is driven by cultural values, and sometimes ambiguity is valued over absolute clarity. This has divided technical communicators over which theoretical framework should be pursued.

Universalism
A central tenet in many teachings of Western technical communication, universalism assumes that all cultures value clarity and directness. This necessitates the removal of cultural references, wordiness, jargon, and any context-dependent language that could confuse a reader. Pidgin English may also be used to simplify the language further, by restricting word usage. These techniques construct unambiguous, singular meanings for words called univocality.

Universalism takes a heuristic approach when teaching writers about addressing other cultures. These heuristics assert that taxonomy of cultural traits is ideal for determining how to effectively convey information. These trait profiles are accompanied by lists of rigid "do's and don'ts" when the reality is more complex.

While ambiguity is an undesired trait in Western technical communication, this value is not shared across all cultures. High-context cultures, which value implied meaning, incorporate ambiguity in their communication styles. The assumption that absolute clarity is inherently correct has led to accusations of ethnocentrism in critical examinations of the field. The taxonomy of traits used in the heuristic has a tendency to lump all members of the same culture under one trait profile, and confine them to fixed geographic locations, without acknowledging the variations that exist within. As a result, the technical communicator creates a stereotype of their audience. This can make conveying information to a complex, constantly changing audience difficult.

Intertextualism
As narrow approaches to technical communication through audience taxonomy have begun to prove ineffective, the intertextual approach has become more relevant. Through the intertextual approach, culture is not viewed as a list of static traits, but rather an acknowledgment that culture is active and constantly changing due to factors like demographics, or increased use of technology. Writing from this perspective focuses more on context than objectivity, and demands that the technical communicator become well-versed in their understanding of the audience’s culture through personal engagement.

The need for this new approach stems from universalism’s tendency to address the individual as a stereotype of a culture. This disregards the fact that individuals tend to be part of more than one community at once.

To facilitate this kind of change, technical communicators are being trained in other disciplines that were once disregarded due to their emphasis on subjectivity. Multicultural studies, and composition studies are useful in reducing rigid assumptions about other cultures, and reductionist thinking. This allows technical communicators to observe cultural differences without forming generalizations and stereotypes.

Ideally, intertextual approaches to technical communication will allow practitioners to trade heuristics for hands-on experience, and direct interaction with stakeholders.

Localizations
A localization is an attempt to transform a simplified text into a work that can be read and understood by adjusting to suit a different culture. There are two types of localization; general localization, and radical localization. General localizations change surface level aspects of the text, such as language, dates preferences, and currency.[10] Radical localizations change how the reader interacts with the text content by catering to different learning styles.

Language
Careful use of language is vital to technical communicators when communicating across cultures. Many of the stylistic choices and ingrained cultural connotations inherent in one’s own culture can be easily misinterpreted in another.

Stylistic Choices
When trying to convey information, a technical communicator must remember that overly stylized wording can negatively impact an audience. For example, overly casual wording can come off as flippant or rude to a culture that values formality. As a general rule, figures of speech should be avoided due to the very culturally specific situations that give them meaning.

Cultural Connotations
Words that have positive connotations in one culture can be seen as negative in others. In addition, views on concepts like colors, numbers, and animals differ drastically. For example, dogs are seen as dirty pests in China, akin to how Westerners view mice.

Lexical False Friends
Due to the popularity of Latin as a root language, words have been exchanged between cultures over many years, and have diverged in meaning. This results in two words that are spelled the same, but have different meanings depending on the cultural context.

Syllabic Limitations
The number of sounds the human mouth can make are limited, and an innocuous syllable in one culture has the potential to cause confusion or offense in another. These are unfortunately difficult to spot.

Language Proficiency
English is one of the most popular languages in the world, and most people involved in international businesses will have at least a rudimentary grasp of it. However, they may not fully grasp the intricacies that come along with the language due to its complexity. Common speech devices among native speakers, like irony and sarcasm, are likely to confuse listeners.

Etiquette
Etiquette and politeness are crucial negotiation tactics employed by intercultural communicators. They are important in preserving face, a concept that seems to be universal within every culture, though specific management tactics vary. Face is the public image of an individual that has been established through their interaction with others. The concept of face communicates power and credibility, and preserves dignity. The loss of face as a result of miscommunication can result in hurt feelings and loss of reputation among peers. Politeness is a tool that prevents potential loss of face in social situations. Politeness strategies include:


 * Seeking agreement from common topics
 * Avoiding disagreement using generalized agreements
 * White lies
 * Hedging opinions
 * Indirectness in cultures that value assertiveness
 * Directness in cultures that value passivity
 * Ambiguity
 * Requests that allow freedom of action

Team Management
Modern technical communicators are expected to work in teams. As more corporations begin serving international audiences, demand for intercultural awareness will continue to rise.

Bias
While classifications are unavoidable, and sometimes handy for forming expectations, the resulting stereotypes can be harmful. Stereotypes lead to biased business practices and discrimination. Once a stereotype is created, it draws attention, as well as reinforcement. While information that defies a stereotype is useful for a single individual, it does not defeat the stereotype as a whole. Stereotypes form easily, as out-groups are perceived as more homogenous than in-groups.

Increased Understanding
Technical communicators must understand verbal and non-verbal cues from multicultural team members if they are to avoid misunderstandings. These cues are split into four distinct functions, and can be identified through careful observation.
 * Semantic Function: The use of gesturing, and symbols to modify verbal meaning.
 * Syntactic Function: The sequence in which verbal, and non-verbal cues are performed.
 * Pragmatic Function: The use of cues to signal social identity and psychological states.
 * Dialogic Function: The use of cues to convey power dynamics within a group.

Awareness of these functions in a cultural context will help prevent incorrect assessments of cultural norms, and incorrect expectations.

Technology
Computer mediated communication in a team setting differs from in-person interactions in that it adds anonymity, and removes the use of nonverbal cues. Identities become more plastic in this environment because the user can more readily choose how to present themselves. The opposite, however is true of computer mediated international communications, in which participants have a steady and unchanging identity. This is the most apparent in high context cultures, which require a stable point of reference for interaction. Individuals from low context cultures are more likely to interact with each other as equals in a computer mediated environment.

Problems
In some scenarios, a technical communicator may be confronted with cultural difference that seem antithetical to their work practices. These scenarios can even include inborn corruption within a culture’s chain of command. These cultures are often identified by their tight control of information, lack of written documentation, and use of bribes. Cultures in which democracy is relatively new are most prone to this type of work environment.

While highlighted previously as a method to prevent loss of face, politeness can be a hindrance as well. Misuse of politeness often occurs in high pressure scenarios where chances of face loss are high no matter what action the technical communicator takes. Unwillingness to speak up in fear of violating role boundaries can result in a subpar product, as evidenced by the catastrophic failure of the Challenger shuttle, which could have been prevented with effective communication strategies.